From the prairies of the United States to the savannahs of Africa, persecution of keystone species deemed nuisances to humans has caused catastrophic losses. With historical knowledge and improved identification tools, it is possible to prevent the mistakes of the past.

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The term “keystone” originally referred to a small, wedge-shaped stone at the top of an arch, without which the arch would collapse. In 1966, Robert Paine adapted the term to describe a species of starfish – a seemingly small part of the intertidal ecosystem – that is essential for the functioning of that ecosystem. The term keystone species describes a species that occupies a key ecological role duplicated by no other species in the ecosystem. Without the keystone species, the entire ecosystem collapses, impacting other species. 

Examples of keystone species are often predators such as grey wolves or sea otters. When these predators were hunted, the populations of their prey exploded unchecked, decimating their food sources and altering the ecosystems they lived in.

But keystone species are not always predators. Mangrove trees are keystones of shorelines, maintaining habitat through tides and storms. Research on microbial communities has identified keystone microbe species essential to the functioning of systems such as human intestines. 

Keystone species are essential to their ecosystem, and must be prioritized in conservation efforts. A concerted effort to combine current knowledge, research, and technology to identify keystone species and provide education may prevent their demise. With ecosystems at risk from human population growth, climate change, and novel diseases, we cannot afford to lose them.

Keystone Species Considered Pests

As often occurs in human history, it is easier to identify a species of importance only once it has been reduced to significantly low numbers. Unfortunately, this means noticing ecosystem changes and having to work backwards to identify the lost species and then try to restore them.

This has occurred with several different species, including with those that find themselves in conflict with humans – often deemed pests.

The African savanna elephant, for example, can consume over 600 pounds of vegetation in a day, which is important in maintaining the characteristic grassland and sparse trees of the ecosystem. However, the open land of the savannah is excellent for agriculture, and hungry elephants can trample crops and destroy agricultural lands, leading to conflict with farmers. Though poaching is the main reason this species is now classified as endangered, retaliation from farmers has also contributed to population decline. 

Prairie dog species were decimated by sylvatic plague – which is transmissible to humans – and even after conservation efforts, their numbers are now estimated to be 5% of their historical population. Without prairie dogs, the prairie ecosystem changed, leaving species such as the black footed ferret, which depends on prairie dogs as a food source, at risk. With limited trees in the prairie, species have evolved to use prairie dog burrows for shelter. Bison prefer to graze around prairie dog burrows where the grass is younger. However, the overlap of prairies and livestock grazing land has led to pushback from farmers who do not want prairie dog burrows around their livestock. 

During the 19th century, beavers – renomated in particular for their extraordinary dam-building skills – were extensively hunted because of the strong European demand for their fur, used in luxury garments. Consequently, their numbers drastically declined from tens of millions to as few as 100,000 individuals by the early 1900s. The importance and benefits of beavers’ dams, which not only help regulate water flow but also reduce flooding, and improve water infiltration, contributing to a healthier ecosystem for both wildlife and humans, have since been recognized. Due to reintroduction, conservation, growing awareness of their significance, and improved human-beaver coexistence, the beaver population has recovered, and the species is now secure from extinction.

These species are just a few examples of keystone species whose importance was not recognized until they were almost gone. Their ecosystems changed and, while some have recovered, there is still much work to be done.

Conservation of Keystone Species

When keystone species are in conflict with humans, their populations are at risk and, especially when they are already threatened by other factors such as disease, poaching, or habitat loss, species recovery is more difficult.

Even with successful captive breeding and release programs, when species are almost extinct, there is less genetic diversity within the population, making that population less likely to adapt to future changes in the environment – a phenomenon known as genetic bottleneck. Therefore, identifying keystone species and putting measures in place to prevent human-wildlife conflict is important to promote ecosystem resilience. 

Preventing the Errors of the Past

To avoid repeating history, identifying probable keystone species is essential for ecosystem conservation. Technology assists this goal as modelling becomes more efficient with machine learning and artificial intelligence. However, models are only as good as the data underpinning them, so research to increase the knowledge of species interactions within an ecosystem must be prioritized. 

Alongside technological advancements, prioritizing education and outreach initiatives for individuals affected by keystone species is also integral. Conflict resolution programs such as range riders trained to protect livestock from wolves and programs promoting coexistence with beavers show that there are creative ways to coexist with keystone species. Humans cannot afford to lose keystone species when ecosystems are at risk.

The post Harmony in Nature: The Vital Role of Keystone Species in Human-Wildlife Coexistence appeared first on Earth.Org.

As global demand for electricity rises and the climate crisis worsens, wind energy is emerging as an essential source of clean energy generation. But in order to make this technology more reliable, experts must be familiar with wind patterns, and how climate change is affecting them. 

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New wind measurement technologies have helped map wind turbine placement and forecast storms that affect power generation. However, rising global temperatures are increasing wind speeds and leading to more intense storms, introducing new problems to the wind power industry. 

Changes in wind speed impact wind power efficiency and the technology that supports it, making wind an important variable in future wind power considerations and turbine designs. 

Wind Energy

Wind energy is a proven way to harness natural power for electricity generation, having been used since the 600s to perform tasks such as grinding grain. 

Wind energy nowadays comes from huge wind turbines that are sometimes as tall as the Statue of Liberty and have three 200-foot (60-metre)-long blades. When these spin with the force of the wind, they turn a shaft that is connected to a generator, producing electricity. 

Wind is a clean source of energy that generates no carbon emissions, is accessible globally, and cheap to implement. The cost of wind energy has been decreasing, making it a cost-effective energy source. Though wind farms may require large areas to effectively space out turbines, the land surrounding the bases of turbines can still be used for grazing livestock, hiking trails, and agriculture.

Urban planners are also increasingly looking at ways in which they can incorporate ​​wind energy into urban environments – a necessity considering that urban built environments have grown dramatically worldwide in the past few decades.

Thanks to research and improvements in technology, wind power is on the rise globally and on track to become one of the most widely-used renewable energy sources. 

Satellite technology detects wind trends in areas around the world, helping to predict storms and store long-term wind data. Using data stored and displayed by sites such as the Global Wind Atlas, companies determine where to set up new wind farms. 

However, as climate change impacts both wind speed and storm intensity, wind is becoming more difficult to predict. 

You might also like: 10 Incredible Facts About Wind Energy That Will Blow You Away

How Is Wind Measured? 

Historically, wind has been measured using a tool known as an anemometer that resembles weather vanes that spin and measure wind speed based on the number of turns made in a given amount of time. Some anemometers are placed on buoys in the ocean to track ocean surface wind, which is important for shipping and navigation, while land measurements are typically located 10 meters above flat ground.

These measurements are vital to understand and predict the damage wind may cause to infrastructure such as homes, businesses, and electrical power lines.

However, these low altitude measurements do not account for the winds of the upper atmosphere that impact storms and the turbulence felt during air travel. 

For this, we have technologies like the Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) system, which is designed to measure atmospheric characteristics including wind speed and direction at a number of heights from ground level. Satellites can also help track cloud speed, allowing measurements of the upper jet stream and more precise weather prediction in areas where equipment is difficult to place or maintain.

These advances in technology have shown some intriguing trends in wind data over the past few decades. 

Global Wind 

As climate change worsens, understanding the impacts warming oceans may have on wind speeds can help improve wind energy infrastructure and assist in planning engineering projects. 

At the turn of the century, scientists began noticing that global winds have been slowing since the 1960s, a phenomenon known as the global stilling effect. The changes were attributed to regrowth of vegetation or buildings, which are now blocking the wind. 

But in 2019, a study pointed at a “reversal” in global terrestrial stilling, showing that the stilling reversed around 2010 and that global wind speeds over land have since recovered, increasing by approximately 17% between 2010 and 2017. The authors debunked previous beliefs that variations in near-surface winds was attributable to vegetation and urbanization, attributing it to cyclical changes in ocean-atmospheric oscillations instead. These oscillations, they concluded, can help anticipate future wind speeds, facilitating the optimization of wind turbines. 

A 2025 study of wind speeds at the surface of the oceans showed that warming oceans are causing faster ocean surface wind speeds. Yet in 2021, wind farms in the North Sea experienced a near total wind stilling, meaning the turbines were generating almost no electricity. The phenomenon is known as “wind drought,” and it has made it imperative for companies to identify which areas are the most consistent for wind energy. Thus, the key to reliable wind energy may be to study regional rather than global wind trends. 

Wind speeds feel different depending on elevation, to which anyone who has summited a mountain or stood on the roof of a skyscraper can attest. This phenomenon is not necessarily determined by altitude but rather by a lack of barriers to protect from the wind. In the upper atmosphere, jet stream speeds are predicted to significantly increase with increased temperatures. This is because jet streams – fast flowing, narrow air currents in the Earth’s atmosphere – are caused by the difference in pressure between the poles and the tropics. Not only can this cause more intense storms, but it may also make air travel more turbulent. 

Effects on Wind Energy

Any time the blades on a turbine are not turning, electricity is not being generated. Of course, this happens on days without wind, but it also occurs when winds are too fast. Turbines are designed to withstand winds up to a Category 3 hurricane. Anything faster than that, and they will automatically shut off. As storms increase in frequency and severity, this scenario is poised to play out more and more often. 

The heightened intensity of storms also increases the vulnerability of costly wind farms to lightning strikes and strong winds, which could harm sensitive equipment. Turbines’ batteries and mechanical parts are also at risk of malfunctioning in extreme hot conditions. 

How to Prepare for Wind Changes

Wind energy is an accessible and affordable method available to nations aiming to reduce carbon emissions, but companies must plan ahead for increasingly volatile conditions. Hardier turbines that could withstand hurricane winds rather than shutting off could ensure electrical generation through catastrophic storms. Equipment must be able to withstand increasing temperatures in open areas. 

Floating offshore turbines, already in use off the coast of Scotland, mitigate concerns for wildlife and make wind technology more widely available, especially for nations with low on-shore wind speeds or limited ground space. Strong winds in the deep sea generate electricity that helps offset some of the high installation costs. These turbines are expensive to install, but costs are expected to decrease as technology improves. 

Companies are also manufacturing airborne wind energy systems – essentially a kite launched into the jet stream – to harness the increasing jet stream speeds. The kite moves in the wind to generate electricity on the ground. Though this is a new technology, the nation of Mauritius has a system with a 120 square-meter kite that has been operating since 2022. Rural locations, offshore barges, and places with consistent high-altitude winds could benefit from airborne wind energy.

We cannot afford to lose the electricity generated by wind, but the changes already occurring in wind speed and predictability mean that we must improve our technology and prepare for volatility in wind power.

The post How Climate Change’s Influence on Wind Patterns Is Affecting the Wind Power Industry appeared first on Earth.Org.

With catastrophic wildfires increasing worldwide, will damaged ecosystems ever recover? Historical evidence demonstrates ecosystems can regenerate after fire, but with the increasing intensity and scale of these fires, humans will need to step up to aid the process.

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Watching the devastating fires across southern California, many wonder if the complex, diverse ecosystems of the region can possibly recover from this devastation.  The short answer is yes. However, the process is not simple, and it is further complicated by climate change. 

Studies of historical fires have shown the processes ecosystems undergo after fires and the ways they can benefit biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. More recently, it has also become apparent that our rapidly changing climate is altering the stages of recovery, and humans can either help or hurt the process.

Ecological Succession

Fire is a natural part of ecosystem cycles, particularly forests, prairies, and grasslands, which is why they have evolved to depend on fire to create diversity. After a fire, there is an open patch of land that, to the human eye, resembles a scar on the land. To many species, though, it is an opportunity: no competition for resources and no predators. A lack of competition after fire opens a new niche in the ecosystem for increased diversity, leading to resilience – or an ecosystem’s ability to withstand change. This new beginning is known as ecological succession. 

In 1988, over 30% of Yellowstone National Park burned as a result of fires that raged for weeks. Today, visitors to Yellowstone may not recognize that there was ever a fire, despite some areas of the park still being in the early stages of recovery. This stands as a testament to the fact that nature can recover from such catastrophes.

Land conditions after a fire – and what the recovery process will look like – depend on the intensity of the fire: how hot it burned and how far it spread. 

In the early days of ecosystem recovery, burnt landscapes are colonized by hardy microorganisms and resilient plants, often referred to as “pioneer species.” To reach the soil, these organisms, seeds, and spores are typically carried on the wind. However, the larger the burned area, the farther these organisms must be carried: a major factor determining the time it takes an ecosystem to recover after a fire. 

These initial colonizers use the nutrients in the soil and create richer topsoil that, after some time, allows more plants to flourish. After a catastrophe, the resilient shrubs, bushes, and seedlings that make up a forest understory are often the most recognizable sign of recovery. These typically fast-growing species require a lot of sunlight, and thrive in areas where there are no tall trees to shade them out. Once larger trees populate the area, they tend to occupy the edges of forests or fields. 

Animals will not return until plants have returned, and it is typically small prey animals who return to an area first. Lots of habitat and few predators attract small mammals like mice, insects, and birds. Once the prey animals are thriving, predators follow. 

Though all ecosystems are constantly changing, the sign that an ecosystem has reached a point of “health” is biodiversity. High numbers of species that occupy different habitats (or niches) in the ecosystem indicate that the ecosystem has recovered after a fire. The entire process, however, can take hundreds to thousands of years. 

Climate Change and Wildfires

With global temperatures rising and drought conditions worsening, wildfires are becoming increasingly frequent and more destructive. The Canadian wildfires of 2023 burned through the country due to increasingly dry and hot conditions. Similar conditions were blamed for the LA fires and for an increase in fire activity across western US and Mediterranean countries. While ecosystems can recover after fire, these larger and more intense fires make recovery more difficult.

Several factors influence recovery, especially with larger and more intense fires that destroy greater areas of land. The larger the destruction, the farther pioneer species must travel. Microorganisms and seeds rely on wind, birds, or animals to carry them to new areas, but the greater the distance from undamaged land, the less likely they are to reach burned areas. A warmer and drier climate also makes it harder for new growth to survive, limiting the ability of any ecosystem to recover and regenerate. This is particularly true for vulnerable tree seedlings. 

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Human Impacts

Evolution takes place over generations, but climate change is already here. In other words, humans have created a problem that requires human ingenuity and effort to solve.  

To mitigate the effects of climate change on land, we must improve ecological management both before and after fires.

Though necessary, fires are both dangerous for people and economically devastating. Indigenous peoples in North America and Australia have set strategic fires as a practical method to clear space for dwellings, create grazing space for animals, and promote vegetative growth. As Europeans colonized these areas and decimated native populations and their cultural practices, traditional ecological management became sparse. On one hand they burnt vast swaths of land for settlement, while on the other they suppressed fires to protect logging interests in certain areas. This all-or-nothing approach allowed for a build-up of fire-prone vegetation. 

It was not until the 1970s that federal agencies began adopting the policy of prescribed burns, sometimes called controlled burns, during which land management officials set fires in designated areas according to meticulous plans. This policy was meant to mimic the natural ecosystem cycles into which indigenous people had integrated so well. 

Prescribed fires work according to the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, which postulates that ecosystems require a moderate amount of disturbance to create new niches for species to occupy, thus increasing diversity. Forest thinning through timber harvesting can prevent fires from reaching the canopy of a forest, and burning vegetation clears thick understory and soil cover.

After a fire, ecosystems take decades to revitalize the soil and restore species diversity. Humans can assist in this process by introducing relevant species to the area through community planting efforts and distribution of beneficial pioneer species. This not only aids diversity and speeds up the natural process but also stabilizes the soil, preventing erosion. 
As climate change brings warmer, drier conditions globally, humanity must look to the lessons of the past to plan for the future. These lessons can be found both in indigenous knowledge and practices and the scientific study of historical fire zones. As the threat of climate change continues to loom over us, we must support affected ecosystems in recovery instead of dismissing their natural cycles.

Featured image: milos bicanski / Climate Visuals Countdown.

The post How Ecosystems Recover After A Fire appeared first on Earth.Org.

In the aftermath of the COP29 summit, during which Saudi Arabia refused any language about divesting from fossil fuels, the world is calling on the nation to adjust its approach to climate change. As the climate crisis continues, how can the Middle Eastern country transition from a natural resource that has given it power and security to a greener, more sustainable future? 

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The Middle East is projected to be one of the world’s regions most adversely affected by climate change, yet it remains resolutely opposed to policies that may impact their economic security – a trade-off that is difficult to understand in a region marked by instability. 

Saudi Arabia is one of the most powerful and influential countries in the world due to its vast oil reserves. As it fights to keep power in a shifting world, the nation’s refusal to allow the thought of fossil fuel reduction to enter global environmental talks is negligent wielding of its power and detrimental both to its citizens and the rest of the Middle East, whom the nation often represents in exclusive groups such as the G20. 

Examining the history of the country, the perceived importance of fossil fuels to economic development, and the effects climate change is having and will continue to have on the Saudi Arabian people clearly shows a stubborn fixation on tradition and unwillingness to progress. 

Saudi Arabia has this opportunity to position itself as a leader in solutions to climate change, but it will miss out if it continues to hold fast to the resources of the past.

Saudi Arabian Dependency on Fossil Fuels

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the Middle East by area. It is home to a wide variety of ecosystems, including forested mountains, sprawling deserts, and marine ecosystems. Its most important economic resource: petroleum. Saudi Arabia is home to about 17% of the world’s oil reserves and with current fossil fuel dependency, the nation is a global power. 

Discovered in 1938 in Dammam by an American oil well, the resource quickly became the catalyst for a shift in the Saudi economy. What had been an isolated country dependent on tourist revenue from the Hajj, the annual Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, was increasingly enmeshed in foreign relationships. 

The Saudi economy has been dependent on these foreign relationships, with a large part of its revenue coming from rent paid by foreign countries for the right to drill for oil in the country. This wealth has been shared amongst Saudi Arabians, who enjoy tax-free personal income. 

Now, even as global oil demand changes and climate change mitigation relies on reduction of fossil fuel dependency, the nation remains resistant to changes in its economic dependency on petroleum.

Climate Change Impacts on Saudi Arabia

Despite its size and diverse landscape, Saudi Arabia faces severe repercussions from climate change, with experts predicting the country will warm by 4C in the next century. 

The kingdom has publicly acknowledged the climate risks it faces, including desertification and pollution from greenhouse gases and plastic.The nation lacks freshwater resources and relies on groundwater and desalination for freshwater. Desalination, or the removal of sodium from seawater, is an expensive process that often relies on fossil fuel energy. 

In spite of all this, Saudi Arabia has a unique potential to use its resources to fight climate change.

Renewable Energy Potential in Saudi Arabia

A region characterized by sunny days and barren deserts seems ideal for solar energy. 

According to a 2024 report released by Rystad Energy, the Middle East has great potential for solar power and, if it transitions away from fossil fuels, the availability of light and open land for solar panels could make the Middle East one of the greatest producers of solar energy.

Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman are leading the way in the region in developing solar projects, with its clean energy capacity expected to continue growing. Saudi Arabia is predicted to surpass the other countries in solar energy production thanks to projects such as the solar plant Al Henakiyah, which could become one of the world’s largest solar power plants.

Barren desert land can be a boon for wind power, and Saudi Arabian plans for the future intend to harness that as a leader in the wind energy sector. Currently, the country is home to the largest wind farm in the Middle East, with plans to continue epanding this sector. 

The need for desalination to provide freshwater is an energy-intensive process, but Saudi Arabia has integrated hydropower technology with desalination plants to harness the energy of the incoming seawater. Creative solutions such as this could be pivotal in the fight against climate change.

Infrastructure for developing countries is necessary, and the climate credits agreed upon in COP29 may not facilitate all of the infrastructure. Powerhouses in the Middle East like Saudi Arabia, which can export water or solar panel technology, may reduce air and water pollution that impacts not only the country itself but also neighbouring nations while supporting its economies.

Saudi Vision 2030

Saudi Arabia’s plan for economic change and growth was launched in 2016 as a way to propel the country through 2030. The plan is cited in many analyses of Saudi Arabian environmental policy, though the primary focus is economic prosperity and there is no specific environmental program. Mentions of environmental changes include mentions of climate change and investing in renewable energy, marking the increasing need to diversify the economy. 

Government oversight programs such as the Renewable Energy Project Development Office and the National Energy Efficiency Program are meant to help the country add renewables to the electrical grid and reduce electricity use, especially as population growth adds demand to the electrical system.

Despite the acknowledgement of climate change mitigation measures, the vision still includes projects to develop the oil and gas industry, while adding renewable energy sources to the mix. Notably, foreign relationships are mentioned as well, highlighting the importance of foreign ties and expatriate workers to the Saudi Arabian economy.

More on the topic: Saudi Vision 2030: What are Saudi Arabia’s Plans for the Future?

Environmental Policy

Saudi Arabia’s initiatives to diversify the economy away from the oil industry, in compliance with its Vision 2030 plan, include groundbreaking urban developments designed to attract tourism, tourist initiatives to increase hospitality in the Red Sea region, and a new urban area, NEOM, that will be 100% powered by renewable energy. 

Current environmental policy in Saudi Arabia is primarily centered on fostering a circular economy, emphasizing the concept of reusing and recycling resources rather than solely reducing the dependence on hydrocarbons like fossil fuels. This strategy aims to reintegrate resources back into the ecosystem, often through practices like planting trees and encouraging recycling. As president of the G20 in 2020, the nation emphasized this method of environmental protection as a primary solution to emissions. 

While this approach shows promise, particularly in regions with diverse landscapes such as mountainous areas, ambitious projects like the Green Riyadh Project face challenges. The initiative, dedicated to augmenting green spaces in the capital city for healthier living conditions and cleaner air, relies heavily on sophisticated and expensive irrigation systems, which pose financial barriers for many developing Middle Eastern nations.

Furthermore, the Saudi Arabia and Middle East Green Initiative espouses clean energy adoption and regional collaboration as pivotal tools in the fight against climate change. But despite its noble objectives, the initiative’s progress has been hindered by financial constraints, as evidenced by the lack of a summit since 2022.

Global Influence

As Saudi Arabia’s dependence on oil resources grew, so did its global power. With fossil fuels a clear contributor to climate change, the country’s resistance to the term during the COP29 summit is related to a culture steep in tradition, resistant to increases in taxes, and seeking economic development through a historically dependable resource. Denying the influence of this resource on a global catastrophe is harmful, not only to Saudi Arabia but also to the rest of the world. 

Saudi Arabia clearly has ideas to diversify its economy. Not only does it have beautiful, diverse landscapes and modern cities to appeal to tourists, the country is also uniquely suited to solar, wind, and hydropower. Instead of focusing on the ways fossil fuels may have contributed to developing economies (though that point is more complex than previously thought), influential countries like Saudi Arabia must look to the economic opportunities of the future.

The post Understanding Saudi Arabia’s Resistance to Environmental Policy Change appeared first on Earth.Org.